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Like any other ancient nation and civilization, China developed the idea of shen as its first concept and belief. Such belief or worship, which can be traced back to remote antiquity before the "Three Dynasties" (Xia, Shang and Zhou), namely 2070 BC, lasted throughout the ancient times of China. However, since the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC), Chinese intellectuals have shown a tendency to deny or downplay the existence of God. Such rationalism, which has been followed by both Taoism and Confucianism since that period, has made an inestimable impact on China's intellectual community.
As far as the written language is concerned, the Chinese character for shen ( ) has been found to appear frequently on oracle bone. However, the idea of shen must have comeThto existence even earlier, which is attested to by the account about the "isolation of Earth from Heaven" given by Guan Shefu, a senior official of the state of Chu, to King Zhao of Chu, as recorded in The Discourses of the States (Guo Yu):
In ancient times, people and gods were not mingled. Upon those among the people who had no unfaithfulness in their minds and could be solemn, prudent and upright, whose wisdom was exemplary for people of higher and lower status alike, whose sagacity was known far and wide, and whose sight and hearing were extraordinary, the spirits of gods would descend. The male among them were called xi, and the female, wu. ... Thus there were officials in charge of matters related to heaven, earth, gods, people, and all kinds of things, called the Five Officials, each of whom maintained order in his jurisdiction without any confusion. Owing to this, the people were loyal and faithful, and the gods were virtuous. The people and the gods went about their separate business, respecting each other with no profanity. So the gods blessed the people with a good life, and the people offered sacrifices to the gods, protected as they were from misfortune and shortage. However, when Shao Hao's rule declined, Jiuli began to disrupt the moral order, so that people were mingled with gods, making it impossible to tell them apart. Female magicians were allowed to offer sacrifices to gods, and each family had its own magicians, but no sense of faith and loyalty. People neglected their sacrifices and did not know their blessings. They indulged in excesses and placed them on a par with gods. They profaned the sacred oath between man and gods, depriving the latter of their awe-inspiring solemnity. The gods, on their part, also connived at the people's wrongdoings rather than stop them. As a result, no auspicious crops appeared anymore to be offered to the gods. Moreover, misfortunes befell the people one after another, and there seemed to be no end to them. When Zhuan Xu came to power, he ordered Zhong, the Official of South, to be in charge of heaven and affairs related to the gods, and ordered Li, the Official of Fire, to be in charge of earth and affairs related to the people, so that the original order was restored to prevent man and gods from mutual encroachment and profanity. This was called "the severing of communication between heaven and earth."
This passage generally conveys the following meanings:
1. Male and female priests for communication between divinity and man (from "In ancient times, people and gods were not mingled" to "The male among them were called xi, and the female, wh");
2. The creation of official positions in charge of such communication (from "Thus there were officials in charge of matters related to heaven, earth, gods, people, and all kinds of things" to "protected as they were from misfortune and shortage");
3. Criticism on the fall into disorder in such communication starting from the decline of Shaohao (from "However, when Shao Hao's rule declined" to "misfortunes befell the people one after another, and there seemed to be no end to them");
4. The restoration of order in such communication in the reign of Zhuanxu (from "When Zhuan Xu came to power" to "the severing of communication between heaven and earth").
Afterwards, the idea of shen was retained despite the appearance of the concepts of and words for "the supreme being" (di) and "heaven" (tian). In fact, there are records about this concept in writings dating from the Shang and Zhou Dynasties: He then offered a special sacrifice to the Supreme Ruler, sacrificed purely to the six honored ones, looked with devotion to the hills and rivers, and worshipped with distinctive rites the hosts of spirits. {Canon ofYao, Book of Documents) From these mountains was sent down a Spirit/Who gave birth to [the princes of] Fu and Shen (Lofty Mountains, Major Court Hymns, Classic of Poetry) Having developed during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, the idea of divinity was finally established among the Chinese and was reflected in the offering of sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, to all deities, and to ancestors, through which the concept was formalized and ritualized. Still afterwards, it was mainly reflected in the polytheistic beliefs of Taoism and Buddhism as well as utilitarian needs closely related to it. These actually show the continuity of China's tradition of beliefs'.
On the other hand, we should be aware that Chinese philosophy gradually developed atheistic ideas since the Spring and Autumn Period. Instead of absolutely repudiating the existence of God, this kind of atheism marginalizes or weakens the role of God and denies that God has any dominant position or significance. Meanwhile, it explains the universe in terms of nature or laws, or enhances the role of man and the responsibility he bears for himself. This, according to Karl Theodor Jaspers, is a reflection of rationalism2. Examples can be found in ancient records, such as the following: Shi Yin said, "When a state is about to rise, the people are listened to; when it is about to fall, divinity is followed." (Zuo Zhuan, The 32"J Year of the Reign of Duke Zhuang) Shu Xing regarded both the fall of a meteorite and the "backward flight of six water fowls" as natural phenomena "related to yin and yang" rather than bad omens. (The 16th Year of the Reign of Duke Xi) A comet appeared when Yan Zi was in the state of Qi. When asked by the Marquis of Qi, who saw it as a bad omen, to pray to gods, Yan Zi said, "If you do not doubt the Way of. Heaven and follow its mandate in good faith, why should it be necessary to pray?" (The 26th Year of the Reign of Duke of Zhao) Sun Tzu was even more atheistic. He said, "Foreknowledge cannot be obtained from ghosts or spirits, nor from gods, nor by analogy with past events, nor from astrological calculations. It can only come from men who know the enemy's situation." (The Use of Spies, The Art of War) This is, of course, necessary for military operations, and a vivid reflection of a scientific view of military affairs.
Since the late Spring and Autumn Period, this fine tradition of rationalism was carried on by Taoist, Confucian and Legalist scholars. For instance, Confucius' rational opinions on "gods and spirits" are recorded in The Analects:
To keep one's distance from the gods and spirits while showing them reverence can be called wisdom. (Yong Ye)
The subjects on which the Master did not talk, were: extraordinary things, feats of strength, disorder, and spiritual beings. (Shu Er)
You don't know yet how to serve men; how can you serve spirits? (Xian Jin)
Here it is obvious that Confucius distanced himself from - or even kept silent about - the issue of gods and spirits. Confucius believed what was important was not what gods and spirits meant to man, but the meaning of man's own behavior. So did Lao Tzu, as apparent from these remarks in Tao Te Ching:
I do not know whose son it is. It might appear to have been before God. (Chapter 4)
Let the kingdom be governed according to the Dao, and the manes of the departed will not manifest their spiritual energy. It is not that those manes have not that spiritual energy, but it will not be employed to hurt men. (Chapter 60)
Though he did not deny the existence of God, it is obvious that Lao Tzu placed its role below, or behind, that of Dao. In fact, he was not quite willing to talk about it. It is also true that such an atheistic attitude is fully reflected in the concept and idea of "nature." Such was the intellectual tradition basically followed by Confucianism and Taoism throughout the pre-Qin period. In comparison, the Legalists were even more confirmed atheists. For instance, Guan Zi said, "If the land is not properly cultivated and the ruler cannot maintain unity among his people, it would be impossible to prevent the country from falling into danger. If the ruler relies on divination and is fond of listening to magicians, spirits would cause him great trouble." (Guan Zi, The Development of Power) Han Fei said, "To go by the divinatory calendar, worship spirits, believe in fortune-telling, and indulge in sacrifices is likely to cause a state to collapse." (Guan Zi, Indications of Pending Collapse) Even better-known is the story about Ximen Bao's administration of Ye. Apart from Legalism, the concept of divinity was absent in the School of Logicians, late Mohism, and the School of Medicine.
Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, the ideas of the pre-Qin philosophers fell into oblivion, and Taoism was transformed into the Taoist religion, with its atheism replaced by belief in the existence of God, or even gods. However, the Confucian scholars, whose thought became unified, still basically adhered to the teachings of their predecessors. In particular, somewhat like Judaists, they remained highly vigilant against and resistant to "illegitimate sacrifices." It is interesting that this idea also had a social impact, which is apparent from the precepts and rules of some clans in the Song Dynasty (960-1279) and later times. For instance, the Xinqigong Family Precepts of the Gao clan in Pangu provides for the prohibition of witchcraft; the Family Precepts of the Long clan in Shouzhou forbids "evil and illicit sacrifices"; and the Clan Prohibitions of the Li clan of Hejiang forbids its members to "join any secret society or religious organization, or become a monk." There is no doubt that all these reflect the Confucian tradition's deep penetration into society. Unfortunately, with the change of society and culture, such a fine tradition of rationalism has come to brink of extinction. Fundamentally speaking, however, due to the continuity of the tradition of beliefs in Chinese society, the polytheistic beliefs, being widespread among the populace, would not be restricted by the minority opinions of philosophers.