Information and Thinking

Information-thinking issue was related to the mind-object issue. The latter concentrated on the source of knowledge while the former on the process of knowledge. Different was their focus, the two issues shared some similarity. Information and thinking were two forms and stages of knowledge, equal to what we call perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge. Ancient Chinese philosophers had realized that very early and later some theories reached high level .

Confucius was the first philosopher who discussed information and thinking from the perspective of learning and thinking. One sentence of Confucius was well known to us: "Learning without thought is indiscriminate; thinking without learning is perilous." (The Analects, Wei Zheng) Here, Confucius stressed that one must combine learning and thinking, both of which must not be neglected. However, to Confucius, learning or seeing was more important:

Hear, and then choose the good to learn; see, and then remember in heart. (Shu Er)

It is in vain I do not eat or sleep all day to think. It is better to learn. (King Ling of Wei)

Lao Tzu held totally different views from Confucius:

One can know what happens in the world when he does not travel around; one can sense Tao when he does not see the window. (Lao Tzu, Chapter 47)

One who learns progresses day by day while one who pursues Tao retrogresses day by day until the state non-action has been achieved. (Chapter 48)

Mohism valued the role that sense played in knowledge as Mohists participated in practice and production. Mo Zi said, "To judge whether one object is present or not, one must take what he sees and hears as the criterion." (Mo Zi, On Ghost and God IT) Obviously, the view embodied empiricism color. However, the empiricist stance was changed in later Monism: "That one can judge the object results from the observation of the mind," and "That one can obtain other's idea results from the analysis of the mind." (The Book of Mo Zi, Canon I)

Mencius highlighted the importance of mind or thinking. This certainly extended Mencius' mentalist view on mind-object issue. Mencius said, "Eye and ear cannot think, so they are deceived by the external object. One will be misled when he makes contact with the object. Mind can think. One can obtain idea if mind thinks and cannot obtain idea if not." (Mencius, Gao Zi I) Besides, Mencius called mind the "Great Form" (Da Ti) and sense the "Minor Form" (Xiao Ti): "If one firstly establishes the Great Form, the Minor Form will not be changed." (Gao Zi I) Mencius' understanding embodied strong rationalist color.

In the late Warring States Period, Xun Zi considered the issue in a deeper way. Xun Zi called sense Tian Guan (sensual organs) and thinking Tian Jun (heart). Xun Zi said, "Ear, eye, nose, mouth, and body cannot be replaced as they sense different objects. They are sensual organs human are born with. Heart lies in the center and controls the five organs. It is the organ ruling others." (Treatise on Heaven) Then, what's the relationship between Tian Guan (sensual organs) and Tian Jun (heart)? Xun Zi explained, "Heart can testify what the organs sense. Nevertheless, that must depend on ear that can hear and eye that can see. Therefore, the role heart plays must rely on sensual organs that sense the objects. {Rectifying Names) On other words, what one obtained from sensual organs must be processed by thinking, which based itself on the material the organs provided. Obviously, Xun Zi presented more accurate understanding of the relationship between information and thinking. Wang Chong held similar view to Xun Zi. Wang Chong attaches great importance to sense and experience: "One must judge based on what he hears and sees." (Critical Essays, On Knowledge and Practice) Meanwhile, Wang Chong valued the role of thinking: "When one judges the right or wrong according to what he sees and hears rather than what he thinks in heart, he will believe the falsity and consider the right to be wrong. Therefore, one must judge based on what he thinks in heart." (On Simple Funeral)

In addition, in Doctrine of the Mean, an important Confucian classic, there were some ideas that greatly impacted Confucian theory on knowledge:

A gentleman should study extensively, inquire prudently, think carefully, distinguish clearly, and practice earnestly.

A gentleman respects the nature given by the heaven and learns Tao, which extends his knowledge, acts in accordance with morality, and follows Doctrine of the Mean.

In Song Dynasty, scholars attached more importance to thinking. For instance, Zhang Zai said, "One can hold the world when he extends the heart. Objects are immeasurable so the heart is limited. Heart of the ordinary is limited by experience while that of a sage is not, as the sage considers all to be himself. (Correcting the Unenlightened, The Great Mind) Zhu Xi said, "Ear controls hearing and eye controls seeing. They cannot think, so they are deceived by objects;" and "Heart can think and controls thinking." (Commentaries to Mencius, Selection of Gao Zi T) In School of Mind, the views of Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming extended to the mind-object issue:

What matters in learning is one must explore the truth with heart. (Lu Jiuyuan, "To Li Zai")

Conscience exists even if it cannot be seen and heard, so it does not rely on seeing and hearing. (The Analects of Wang Yangming [Chuan Xi Lu], Vol. 3)

These views obviously focused on thinking.

Wang Fuzhi returned to the theories of Confucius and Xun Zi. On "investigating things and gaining knowledge," Wang Fuzhi said,

Investigating things means to collect phenomena in the past and present and discover the truth. Gaining knowledge means to reveal the hidden ideas. Without the latter, the ideas in objects cannot be embodied; without the former, the truth will be led to wrong direction. With investigating things and gaining knowledge combined, one can succeed in learning. (Elaborations on the Book of Documents, On the Effect of Fate II)

Wang Fuzhi's view indicated the mutual reliance between sensibility and ration as well as the dialectic outlook .