Mind and Object

Where did knowledge originate? How did knowledge come into being? Did knowledge originate from object or mind? The answers to these questions also differed and embodied the difference between materialism and mentalism.

It was also Confucius who firstly discussed the issues. Confucius said, "Who knew knowledge when he was born was the most talented and who obtained knowledge through learning was the second." (The Analects, Ji Shi) Here, Confucius indicated two ways to obtain knowledge: born with knowledge and through learning. The former was congenital and the latter was postnatal. Vague and ambivalent Confucius' dualism seemed, it played an important role and established the foundation for materialism and mentalism. However, Confucius did not consider himself the former, "I did not know knowledge when I was born. I like ancient culture and study hard." (Shu Er)

In Pre-Qin Time, most scholars took the materialist stance and held "Theory of Reflection" on the origin of knowledge. Namely, they stressed that knowledge came from human's contact with nature. Mo Zi said, "If one saw ghost, he must think there was ghost in the world, vice versa." (Mo Zi, On Ghost and God II) Mo Zi took "to see by oneself as the foundation of knowledge, which was accepted by Mohism. In The Book of Mo Zi, it was stated, "Knowledge is what one contacts." (Canon T) and "Knowledge means that one can describe what he sees vividly." (Explanations to The Book of Mo Zi T) Xun Zi said, "Knowledge means wisdom when it stands test." (Xun Zi, Rectifying Names) These views indicted the contact between subject and object. Han Fei expressed similar view in his critique of apriorism: "Foreknowledge means the rule that one expresses before things have displayed. Foreknowledge is the conjecture without ground." (Han Fei Zi, Explaining Lao Tzu)

However, Mencius' theory on knowledge inherited Confucius' view of "born with knowledge" and embodied mentalist color. Mencius said, "Good quality is what human possess without learning; good knowledge is what human obtain without thinking." (Mencius, With All Heart T) On morality, Mencius said, "Benevolence, righteousness, rite, and wisdom are not given by others but inherent in human." (Gao Zi I) With the apriorist stance, Mencius viewed, "One will know his nature if he fully explores his mind. One will know Tao if he knows his nature." (With All Heart I) and "The cardinal rule for learning is nothing but to find back one's nature." (Gao Zi T) Mencius also assent with the idea Foreknowledge and admitted he had foreknowledge via Yi Yin's words: "(Yi Yin said) the heaven creates human to allow those of insight to enlighten those without it. 1 am one of those of insight and will enlighten them. Nobody can achieve it, but I." (Wan Zhang I)

It was noticeable that mind-object issue also dealt with form-spirit (Shen) issue. Shen here did not refer to ghost in ghost-God but spirit, both of which were easily confused. The issue was mentioned in Pre-Qin Time. Xun Zi revealed that form appeared earlier than spirit: "Spirit will appear when form has been complete." (Xun Zi, Treatise on Heaven) The evidence could also be found in medical theory. In The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor, it was said, "The five organs in Zang accumulate vitality, blood, and spirit." (Central Area, On Meridian System and Blood) In Huai Nan Zi, it was viewed that spirit determined form: "It is favorable if spirit decides form while harmful if form decides spirit." (Treatise on Original Tao) The view in Buddhism that spirit was immortal made the issue more complicated. Huan Tan, a philosopher in late Western Han Dynasty and early Eastern Han Dynasty, compared spirit to candle fire to refute the Buddhist view: "That the spirit relies on form resembles that fire on candle." (New Thoughts [Xin Lun], Ridding Obstructions) Later, Hui Yuan, a Buddhist philosopher in Eastern Jin Dynasty, used fagot-fire metaphor to demonstrate the immortality of spirit: "That the fire was transferred to fagot resembles that the spirit was transferred to form. That the fire was transferred to different fagots resembles that the spirit was transferred to different forms." (On Monks Should Not Respect the King) In Southern Dynasty (420-589), Fan Zhen fundamentally deconstructed the Buddhist view: "Spirit and form are inseparable. Spirit exists when form is present and disappears when form is absent." (On the Non-Existence of Spirit)

Buddhist theory also dealt with mind-object issue, the most basic question in Buddhist philosophy, and embodied mentalist color. For instance, Zhi Yi, a monk in Tiantai Sect held the view of "one idea and three thousand worlds":

One idea represents ten Dharma realms. One Dharma realm extends to ten and one hundred Dharma realms. One Dharma realm includes thirty worlds, and one hundred Dharma realms include three thousand worlds, which all exist in one idea. (The Analects of Monk Zhi Yi \Mo He Zhi Guan], Vol. 5)

Xuan Zang, a monk in Weishi Sect, viewed that all were transformed from mind: "Therefore, all that seems achievable or unachievable, virtual or realistic, originate from mind." (Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-Only [Cheng Wei Shi Lun], Vol. 7) Zong Mi, a monk in Huayan Sect said, "In the real Dharma realm, all can be reduced to mind." (Notes on Gates in Huayan Dharma Realm) Hui Neng, a monk in Zen, took non-mind as cardinal rule: "One who realizes non-mind will realize all and reach the highest level." (Platform Sutra [Tan Jing], Bo Re Pin) This meant that one should keep his mind unaffected by external objects.

After Song Dynasty, the discussion over mind-object issue returned to Confucian stance. Ontologically, Zhang Zai and Zhu Xi took different opinions. Epistemologically, they were both influenced by Confucius' dualism. Zhang Zai observed that "Man obtains knowledge as eyes and ears perceive it. Man perceives the external objects with mind" and that "the knowledge that eyes and ears can perceive does not rely on experience." (Correcting the Unenlightened, The Great Mind) Similarly, Zhu Xi believed that "One knows the truth by touching the object" and that "Knowledge exists in the mind of all." (Commentaries to Selected Great Learning) In contrast, Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming inherited the thoughts of Mencius. Lu Jiuyuan said, "All can think and bear ideas in mind, so what one thinks is truth." ("To Li Zai") Wang Yangming said, "What one thinks is truth. In spite that the objects are different, they all express one's idea." (The Analects of Wang Yangming [Chuan Xi Lu], Vol. 1) Wang Yangming's view was fully embodied as follows:

When you do not see the flower, it remains invisible as your mind has not perceived it. When you see the flower, it presents the diverse colors to you. Thus, the flower does not exist out of your mind. (The Analects of Wang Yangming [Chuan Xi Lu], Vol. 3)

My mind dominates the heaven, the earth, ghost, and God. Without my mind, how could the heaven be worshipped? How could the earth be respected? How could disaster and fortune be discerned by ghost and God? (The Analects of Wang Yangming [Chuan Xi Lu\, Vol. 3)

Here, Wang Yangming's view had developed into solipsism . Obviously, Wang Yangming's view was criticized by materialist philosophers. For instance, Wang Tingxiang said, "A sage cannot know the truth if he does not see and perceive the object." (Ya Shu, Vol. 1) Wang Fuzhi said, "One perceives the object and then forms ideas in mind. Therefore, one cannot form ideas if he has not perceived the object." (Notes on Correcting the Unenlightened, Note on Hexagram Qian II) It was notable that Wang Fuzhi revised the Buddhist concepts Neng (Subject)-Swo (Object) to explain mind-object relationship:

Suo (Object) means one thing that can be used. Neng (Subject) means the function one thing serves. There was the difference between Suo and Neng. It was reasonable that Buddhist used them in dualism. Suo must depend on form and Neng must depend on function. Suo can be used through Neng and Neng can function through Suo. (Elaborations on the Book of Documents, Duke Zhao's Memorial to the King and No Comfort)

Here, Neng was the subject and Suo was the object. It was sensible for Buddhists to use the two terms to differentiate mind and object, but they overstated mind and devalued object. (Elaborations on the Book of Documents, Duke Zhao's Memorial to the King and No Comfort) However, Wang Fuzhi used Neng-Suo and Form-Function to explain mind-object, which indicated the theory of reflection, stressed human's initiative spirit, and criticized the wrong understanding on knowledge.